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	The History and Theory of Rhetoric by James A. Herrick, Third Edition, 2005
	Chapter One: An Overview of Rhetoric
1	The term "rhetoric" sometimes poses a problem in communication because it has become connoted with "empty speech".
1	Herrick mentions that Plato used the character Socrates to represent his (Plato's) own views.
2	Empiricist John Locke called rhetoric "perfect cheats".
2	Herrick discusses the contributions of Richard McKeon, who was very pluralistic in his critique methods (using many methods of critique versus a single approach). In reading about McKeon, his philosophical pluralism borders on the relativism of the early sophists like Gorgias, without falling into complete nihilism. McKeon saw values in philosophies outside of his own. His criticism sought to understand the reasons behind what the rhetor was communicating, as if understanding why the communicator believed such would draw the audience to a better mutual understanding.
2	Herrick asks, rhetorically, if modern rhetoric can be compared to the rhetoric that Plato so despised.
3	Herrick asks if rhetoric as a tool for persuasion is neutral or manipulative or deceptive. I think it begins neutral and either persuades informatively or manipulates deceptively depending on the rhetor's use. If my only experience with rhetoric was watching Boston Legal, I would say, if anything, it's manipulative powers have been sharpened even further.
3	Herrick speaks of our leeriness of attempts by others to persuade us, our discomfort with telephone solicitors or even a family member. This reminds me of being a the mall over Christmas. I was walking past one of those kiosks that speckle the lower level. On the right, a woman was trying to rub lotion on all the girls passing by, and on the left, a young hippie-looking dude was calling over men like a barker at carnival side show. "Hey, you" he said to me, "Come here. Let me show you something." "No thanks," I said, "I'm not interested." He responded, "It will just take a second." "No, really, I smiled, "I'm not interested" and walked on past. I wondered up to the food court and ordered Chinese food. I was enjoying my meal, when this same guy marches into the food court to order lunch. I thought he was going to come talk to me. He didn't. However, it made me consider what I would say if he asked, "Why wouldn't you stop and talk to me?" I would have said- "...because I am absolutely happy. At this moment, I am want for nothing, and it's obvious that you're going to try and change that."
4	Herrick asks, "If medicine is a science, shouldn't rhetorical practices such as an argument and persuasion be nonexistent?" He then provides examples that show this is not the case. The example reminded me of Socrates dialogue with Gorgias in which Gorgias tells Socrates that his brother was a doctor. Gorgias' brother often employed Gorgias to persuade his patient to have an unpleasant surgery.
5	In defining rhetoric, the author seems to settle on "the use of symbols to persuade". How well you persuade depends on how effectively you use your symbols.
7	Herrick wants to pronounce "rhetor" as RAY-tor. Maybe he's from the south; although, Hope College, where he teaches, is in Michigan. How's that for a parenthetical Neo-Aristotelian quip?
7	The editor in me finds the following difficult to pass over, so I will not (grin). At the bottom of p.7, Herrick states "This section identifies five distinguishing characteristics of rhetorical discourse, the marks the art of rhetoric leaves on messages." Beside the sentence being initially awkward, he then lists six points- not five.
8	Of the 6 distinguishing characteristics of rhetoric, Herrick starts by saying that Rhetoric is Planned. This includes what argument to advance, which evidence supports it, understanding the audience and the aesthetics of the presentation. Herrick mentions Cicero (b.106 BCE - d.43) and three Latin terms Cicero used in this context: inventio (invention) to illustration the invention of an argument, dispositio (arrangement) to illustrate the ordering or arrangement of the argument, and elocutio (elocution or speaking) to illustrate finding the correct linguistic style for delivering the argument.	1
9	Another of the 6 characteristics: Rhetoric Is Adapted the an Audience. You must take into account the beliefs and average education of the audience. You must also find a way to build a bridge to your audience that establishes knowledge that is held in common between rhetor and audience. This is the starting point.	2
9	Aristotle put forth a rhetorical principle he called an "enthymeme" (en-thuh-meem), which is "an argument built from values, beliefs or knowledge held in common by speaker and audience." This identification of commonality between rhetor and audience is called "identification" by theorist Kenneth Burke.
10	Another of the 6 characteristics: Rhetoric Reveal Human Motives. In other words, what comes out of your communication reflects what's truly in your heart.	3
11	Another of the 6 characteristics: Rhetoric Is Responsive. In other words, your communication should invite dialogue.	4
12	Another of the 6 characteristics: Rhetoric Seeks Persuasion. In other words, your communication should influence the audience to accept your position.	5
12	The four goals of persuasion: Arguments, appeals (audience's loyalties), arrangement (best arguments last) and aesthetics (beautiful language)
15	Another of the 6 characteristics: Rhetoric Addresses Contingent Issues. It is important to weigh options in contingent matters (practical questions with no definite or unavoidable answers). In other words, debating whether the sun will rise has an unavoidable answer, therefore, it is not a contingent issue.	6
17	Perelman and Olbrechts-Tyteca pointed out that the quality of the audience determines the quality of rhetoric in a society. Much like the quality of the interlocutor determined the quality of the discourse in Socrates dialogues. For example, Plato shows that the dialogue between Meno and Socrates, who wants Meno to define virtue. Meno responds by giving examples of virtue, but he tires and gives up when Socrates tries to get him to think more deeply about the topic.
18	"The art of rhetoric is the study of effective advocacy."
19	Rhetoric distributes power: 1. Personal power, 2. psychological power, 3. political power.
20	Rhetoric's ability to test ideas is subverted when ideologies go unexamined. "…an unexamined ideology prevents its adherent from seeing things 'as the are'." Socrates is famous for saying that an unexamined life is not worth living.
21	Three ways in which rhetoric discovers facts: 1. Locating evidence, 2. critical thinking, 3. determining what is important.
22	Rhetoric shapes knowledge- Social rhetoric shapes the values and morals of its people. It forms the moral zeitgeist of the period. For example, rhetoric played a key roll in the emancipation of women in western cultures. Rhetoric turns facts and ideas into knowledge. This is sometimes good and sometimes bad.
23	Rhetoric builds community. The health of a community is defined by the language used to describe the community. Communities are sustained by rhetorical interactions.
	Chapter Two: The Origins and Early History of Rhetoric
31	The exact beginning of rhetoric cannot be pinpointed any more than the beginning of dance.
31	Herrick quotes Richard Leo Enos, who teaches at Texas Christian University. Enos is an expert in classical rhetoric and specializes in examining artifacts dealing with ancient writings. He dates Homer to the 9th century. I am curious as to why so early. I'll email him and ask (done). Dr.Enos responded, "In this respect "Homer" may be more of a series of rhapsodes who did evolve their compositions over time and then these oral compositions were formalized and stabilized with writing. There probably was a Homer but their were also Homeridae (Chios) who continued in the tradition." He also recommended the following books: COMPANION TO HOMER (Wace and Stubbins); G. S. Kirk, HOMER AND THE ORAL TRADITION I thought I knew a thing or two about the date of Homer, but, obviously, I've barely scratched the surface. Dr.Enos was very patient. Enos has identified three functions of language in Homer's writing: heuristic (encouraging a person to learn), eristic (power to make its point), and protreptic (power to persuade).
32	Herrick mentions disputes that arose at the death of a tyrant named Hieron [high-er-on] (see timeline at 467 BCE) over land that he had seized in Sicily. A rhetorician named Corax taught people to speak and defend themselves in court. Corax's systematic approach was duplicated by others and later taken to Athens.
32	The new democracy in Greece created opportunities. Training in rhetoric provided the education needed for the middle class to step into politics more easily.
33	To the Greeks, the city was known as the "polis."
33	The sophist created education for pay on the individual basis.
34	Herrick points out that the Greek public gradually rejected the idea that their destiny was guided by the gods and began responding to the spoken word (persuasion by education). This was one of the reasons that Socrates attacks the Sophists. They wanted to explain nature in an ateleological way. Socrates was concerned that if you simply explained that the sun was a hot rock and not one of the gods, then you could not swear by the god of the sun; therefore, your promises would have nothing to back them up. This, to Socrates, would result in a decline in morality. Similarly, in the Theaetetus, a dialogue about knowledge, we find that Socrates is concerned that the result of ateleologic physics (from Ionian physics), the Sophist are relativists because their ontology, or nature of existence, is constantly in flux (see Heraclitus). In fact, Gorgias was a solipsist, believing that nothing exists.
34	Trials in Athens consisted of two speeches, one for the defense and another for prosecution. The jury did not deliberate. They voted.
34	There were no lawyers, but you could hire a logographer (expensive) to write a speech for you.
35	Herrick says, "Important Sophists include Gorgias, Protagoras, Polus, Hippias, and Theodorus."  I’m interested to know why Polus is important. He's presented as less than stellar in the Gorgias.
35	The second half of the 5th century was a period of intellectual innovation. Rhetoric had much more of an contribution than philosophers like Plato.
36	Aristophanes mocks the Sophists in the play "The Clouds".
36	Sophists claimed to be able to teach arete (ar-a-tey), which as virtue and valor and good character. Socrates attacked this idea in the Gorgias.
36	Herrick says that the Sophist employed the dialectic. Of course, in Socrates view, they mostly have long speeches. To Socrates, the dialectic was a means to get to the truth. To the Sophists, it was a means to learn both sides of an argument.
37	The Sophist used a method called dissoi logoi (dis-soy leh-goy), in which they learned to argue a point from negative and the affirmative.
37	The Sophist used the idea of "kairos" (kigh-ross) to reflect taking advantage of the moment. Kairos is one of two words for time in Greek; the other being chronos (crow-noss). A Sophist, who was properly trained, would press his point and persuade at the right time.
37	"epideixis" [ep-ee-dex-is] is a speech prepared for a formal occasion.
38	Herrick says that Plutarch wrote that the Sophists were men of "political shrewdness and practical sagacity" (sagacity means "soundness of judgment"). Herrick fails to make it clear as to whether Plutarch was referring to the Sophist of the 5th century BCE or the Sophists of his day. Plutarch wrote around 85 CE.
38	Xenophon called the Sophists "masters of fraud." In fact, it's rumored that Xenophon once asked, "How many Sophists does it take to shingle a house?" His response was, "It depends on how thin you slice them." Just kidding. Reading about the distaste for the Sophists just sounds like the setup for lawyer jokes of today.
38	Just as lawyers of today are viewed with suspicion by the pedestrian crowd, the Sophists were viewed as persuading by clever arguments.
38	Aristotle wrote of the empty arguments of the Sophists in "On Sophistical Refutations."
39	One reason the Sophists were distrusted was because the taught for pay.
39	Another reason the Sophists were distrusted was that many were foreigners. The Sophists called all non-Greeks barbarians.
39	Susan Harratt notes that the Sophist were "skeptical about the divine source of knowledge." Impiety could really create a problem. According to Plato, the accusation of Meletus against Socrates was "Socrates is guilty of crime; first, for not worshipping the gods whom the city worships, but introducing new divinities of his own; secondly, for corrupting the youth. The penalty due is death." Even today, impiety is associated with immorality by most Americans, which is why an atheist could not be elected President. The names of the gods we sing about change, but the song remains the same.
39	The elite of Athens deemed the Sophists a threat to the more oligarchical way of thinking. They would prefer that education be out of reach to the common middle class.
40	Herrick mentions that the Sophists believed that the world could be reproduced "linguistically" - In other words, by rhetoric, they would create belief, which would become truth by majority.
40	Nomos - Social custom or convention; rule by agreement among the citizens. Contrast "themos", which is law derived from the authority of the king. Contrast physis, or natural law, and logos, the Platonic source of absolute truth. The Sophists worried Athens because of their belief in nomos. To them, law as a matter of public agreement.
40	Janet Sutton says there is evidence that the poor view of the Sophist may be due to the portrayal of their enemies like Plato. They actually were held in high esteem in Athens.
41	Gorgias was famous for his three-aprt formation of skeptical philosophy: 1. Nothing exists - This is called solipsism [sol-ip-siz-em]. 2. If anything exists, we cannot know it. - I suppose this is nihilism. 3. If we could know that something existed, we would not be able to communicate it to anyone else. - skeptical relativism
	This all gravely contrasted with Plato's belief in absolutism - The logos was the source of absolute truth and was inside all of us through reincarnation. Through the dialectic, it could be brought forth.
41	Richard Leo Enos calls Gorgias one of the most innovative theorists in Greek rhetoric.
41	To Gorgias, persuasion was "the art of deception" - which was in stark contrast to Plato's logos of absolute truth.
41	The ability of rhetoric to create belief was like the casting of magic spells - the words like incantations.
42	To take this idea of verbal incantations, Gorgias sometimes employed a system of rhyming that mesmerized his audience. His words were like a snake charmers flute, captivating the cobra.
42	Gorgias is so confident in his ability to persuade, that wrote an encomium on Helen of Troy, showing her innocence. In other words, he wa saying that he was so good, he could get Helen of Troy off the hook.
43	The Sophist employed numerous oratory tricks or compartmentalized oratory formulas. These are the things they charged money to teach.  The allegoria (over bold metaphors), the hypallage [hey-pal-a-gee] (using one word for another), catachresis [cat-a-cree-sis] (X in the sentence - Ask not what your country can do for you, rather ask what you can do for your country), an antithesis (Your proposal will bring war, but my ideas will bring peace)
	Rhetoric appealed to emotion to warp judgment for the purpose of persuasion.
43	Protagoras was the first to charge for lectures. He is the one who said "Man is the measure of all things."
43	Protagoras was agnostic about the gods.
44	Protagoras systematized eristic arguments. These were argumentative tricks that obscured true meaning for the goal of winning an argument.
44	Herrick says that Protagoras' approach to addressing both sides of an argument could be seen as the basis for the dialectic, taken up by Socrates.
44	Protagoras had his students learn both sides of an argument. The student had to argue both sides.
44	Protagoras' dissoi logoi ensured that the student understood his opponent's position as well as his own.
45	Herrick claims that Jacqueline de Romilly in "The Great Sophists in Periclean Athens" says on p. viii that Isocrates studied under Socrates. I checked (because this would further prove that Socrates was a real person), and it does not say this. It just says that the most of the writers in Athens studied under the Sophists. Maybe he confused the word Sophist with Socrates.  Specifically, it says on page ix, "He himself [Isocrates] studied under Gorgias, having travelled to Thessaly to attend his lectures." I emailed Dr. Herrick to ask about it. Update: Dr. Herrick agreed with me and says that he's currently working on the 4th edition. He will make the correction.	Link
45	Isocrates founded a school in Athens and became one of the wealthiest and best known teachers of his day. His fee was 1000 drachmas at a time when the average laborer made one drachma per day.
45	Isocrates was a native Athenian and a pan-Hellenist. In other words, he wanted to expand the Grecian empire by uniting the bickering cities of Greece. He felt that if he could get people to talk out their differences, it would unite Greece. Ford
45	At the top of p.45, Herrick says that Isocrates was "likely" a student of Gorgias, and then in the middle he says that he "was" a student.
46	Isocrates introduced the requirements of thematic and pragmatic. Thematic focused on significant matters, which pragmatic focused on making a positive contribution to the audience.
46	Isocrates required a high moral standard for his students, in contrast with the average Sophist.
46	Isocrates did not believe he could teach virtue and arete. To him, you were either moral or not.
47	Philip II, of Macedon, put an end to pan-Hellenism by crushing the hoplites in the battle of Chaeronea in 338 BCE (pronounced care-a-knee-a).
47	Herrick speaks of the women of Athens having fewer freedoms as citizens and property holders. Women were expected to stay home- except for religious festivals. Women were not permitted to make speeches. He quote Democritus (dee-mock-cree-tus), "...women should not be allowed to practice argument because men detest being ruled by women." An interesting comparison is the New Testament admonition of women in Corinth, just 50 miles from Athens. The Apostle Paul writes his letter to the Corinthians saying "34- women should remain silent in the churches. They are not allowed to speak, but must be in submission, as the Law says. 35- If they want to inquire about something, they should ask their own husbands at home; for it is disgraceful for a woman to speak in the church." (1 Cor. 14:34-35).
47	The rights of women in Greece seemed to decline as democracy increased.
48	Aspasia traveled with Pericles, gave him political advice and wrote speeches for him.
	Chapter Three: Plato versus the Sophists: Rhetoric on Trial
54	Herrick points out that there is a long standing rivalry between rhetoric and philosophy, and then contrasts it with the fact that all of Plato's dialogues use rhetoric. H
55	The Gorgias is a criticism of all rhetoric and rhetoricians.
55	In the Gorgias, Plato addresses whether or not rhetoric, by its nature, tends to mislead. It addresses the effect of persuasion forming the basis of law and justice.
55	Plato's had the following criticism of the Sophists: taking money, exaggerated pedagogy, and boastfulness.
55	Socrates asks Gorgias what he teaches. Gorgias says "Rhetoric"- the use of words. Socrates asks what value comes of his teaching. He eventually boils it down to the ability to persuade with words. Socrates presses further, and Gorgias says it deals with persuasion in courts of law dealing with justice and injustice. Justice and virtue are Socrates hot buttons. Gorgias said the magic word.
57	Socrates gets Gorgias to admit that he can create a belief about justice, but doesn't have time to teach true justice.
57	Socrates shows that words create belief, which leaves the audience feeling as though they have knowledge, but it's only belief.
57	"In the course of this conversation with Gorgias, Socrates has made the surprising assertion that one who truly understands justice could never choose to do injustice. This is because to understand justice is to love it, and at the same time to recognize just how repulsive injustice is." Herrick, p.57
	This is why, in the Republic, Socrates believes that a philosopher king will suffice to rule the city. He believes that he can create a perfect society by imparting knowledge of justice. By the end of his life, he begins to change his mind and writes the dialogue called "Laws".  Just as Gorgias could not have enough time to teach a jury justice- so he must persuade belief. Perhaps he realizes that even a life time is not enough to teach everyone justice- So, he writes the Laws.
	In Plato's arts that affect the health of the soul, he has one art for preventative maintenance (like legislation) and another for restoration (like Justice). Plato appeals to Gorgias' medical association. He wants to change the way Gorgias teaches so that he can be a true healer of the soul.
59	Plato contrasts the true art of justice with rhetoric. Plato calls rhetoric the counterfeit art of Justice, like putting on makeup is the counterfeit art to physical fitness (which he calls gymnastics). Maintenance arts for the body: Gymnastics (Physical fitness) - counterfeit = Makeup Restoration art for the body: Medicine - counterfeit = cookery (mom's chicken soup cures) Maintenance art for the soul: Legislation with a knowledge of virtue and vice - Counterfeit = sophistic (long speeches) Restoration art for the soul: Justice (teaching true knowledge of virtue) - counterfeit = rhetoric
59	The true art of Justice was intended to restore health to a soul that was ailing due to committing unjust actions. Rhetoric did not provide the soul with knowledge required to live justly. Instead, it potentially persuaded you to believe that the actions were just. This caused people to live even more unjustly. It's interesting the Plato uses the analogy of Justice being medicine for the soul, as Gorgias' brother was a doctor. Gorgias relates how his brother would hire him to persuade patients to allow his brother to operate on them. Many times, the lack of a good anesthesia caused some much anxiety, that Gorgias would come in and convince the patient to allow the operation.
60	Socrates brings Polus to accept "That to do wrong and not be brought to justice is the first and greatest of all evils."
61	Callicles [cal-a-kleez] delivers a beautiful, but amoral, soliloquy on following the pleasures of desire over the search for virtue.
	Socrates shows that Callicles is not his own master, but is a slave to his desires.
61	Callicles responds by saying that men are enslaved by the idea that equality equals morality. This reminds me of Nietzsche and his views on equal rights - From The Antichrist, 57, "When the exceptional man handles the mediocre man with more delicate fingers than he applies to himself or to his equals, this is not merely kindness of heart--it is simply his duty. . . . Whom do I hate most heartily among the rabbles of today? The rabble of Socialists, the apostles to the Chandala, who undermine the workingman's instincts, his pleasure, his feeling of contentment with his petty existence--who make him envious and teach him revenge. . . . Wrong never lies in unequal rights; it lies in the assertion of "equal" rights. . . . What is bad? But I have already answered: all that proceeds from weakness, from envy, from revenge.--The anarchist and the Christian have the same ancestry. . . ."
	Nietzsche believed that justice between men was only possible between men of the same caste. He saw the  rights of the masses as the doctrine that the unfit have the right to survive.
	Gorgias was an early dialogue, all of which were aporetic.
62	Herrick and Enos believe that Plato was being harder on the Sophists than they deserved.
63	After reading Plato's Gorgias, Cicero said, "What most surprised me about Plato in that work was that it seemed to me that as he was in the process of ridiculing rhetors he himself appeared to be the foremost rhetor."
64	In the Phaedrus [feed-druss], Plato hints at a true art of rhetoric, but it would seem that he was the only one who could practice it.
64	The Phaedrus addresses love, immortality, the soul and poetry.
65	Plato argues for 3 parts of the soul: 1. One part loves wisdom (true philosopher) 2. One part loves nobility and honor (military minded) 3. One part loves appetite and lust (hedonists)
	In the Phaedrus [feed-druss], Professor Michael Segrue points out that anytime there is walking in the dialogues, it represents life's journey. Walking from the polis into nature is representative of the struggle between nomos and phusis. Socrates will discuss matters of natural and instinct.
66	The myth of the Charioteer
	The myth of the Charioteer is also illustrative of the struggle between nomos and phusis. The soul is divided into three parts. Wisdom is attempting to drive two horses: one noble, a lover of honor, the other strong, wild, ugly head strong. In order to move forward in life's journey, you must balance your passions with that that is honorable.
66	We're reminded that a techne is an art useful for bringing about justice and harmony.
66	Socrates says that in order for words to persuade, we must know the type of soul we address. In other words, our rhetoric must understand its audience. We must discover the type of speech that matches the type of nature.
67	The true rhetorician must learn what each part of the "soul" loves, promise to give that to that part of the "soul" in exchange for cooperation with the other part of the "soul". For example, your need for pleasure and your desire for power and success.
67	Any true techne has a goal or product, p.67
68	Rhetoric does not define truth, but it corrects and refines already discovered truths.
	Chapter Four: Aristotle on Rhetoric
73	Herrick says that the chief rival to Plato's Academy was Isocrates school of rhetoric. Aristotle could have attended Isocrates school. By attending the Academy, he carried on the battle with the Sophists.
74	Aristotle wrote a book called Rhetoric. Read it at the link to the right ------------------------------>	Link
74	Aristotle's rhetoric borrowed from both Plato and the Sophists, taking the best from both.
74	Herrick cautions that Aristotle's book on rhetoric may be a reconstruction from student's notes and various sources.
75	Aristotle's Rhetoric opens with the statement the "rhetoric is the counterpart of dialectic." The Greek word for "counterpart" is the same word used in the Gorgias for rhetoric being the counterpart of cookery.
75	The dialectic allowed you to examine critically both sides of a question, thus testing old ideas and discovering new ones.
75	Rhetoric was better at resolving issues like accusations of crime. Dialectic was better at getting the heart of a philosophic issue. Specific questions vs general questions.
75	Rhetoric was something different than sophistry, logic or poetry. Aristotle says that it is "the faculty (the power) of observing in any given case the available means of persuasion." It reminds me of the idea of kairos.
76	In order for rhetoric to be a techne, its function must not be covered by another art. Aristotle confirms that discovering the available means of persuasion" - is not a function of any other art.
76	Aristotle seems to be answering Socrates charge to Gorgias that rhetoric has no identifiable study of its own.
77	Aristotle believed that rhetoric's job was not to win every time, but to come as close to persuading as was possible, depending on circumstances.
77	Aristotle believed that rhetoric was useful because things that are true and virtuous will tend to prevail over their opposites. Rhetoric is useful to make sure this happens.
77	Aristotle acknowledges that the pedestrian audience may be hard to convince with just the facts. However, instead of verbal trickery, the rhetor should try to find a common starting point with that audience.
77	Aristotle also see the importance of the dissoi logoi - discovering both sides of an argument with rhetoric. This helps to test ideas.
78	Another use of rhetoric is to defend yourself.
78	The Enthymeme [en-thuh-meem] Aristotle's word for an argument  built from values, beliefs or knowledge held in common by speaker and audience. From dict: a syllogism or other argument in which a premise or the conclusion is unexpressed. "An enthymeme depends on a previous agreement about a belief, a value or preference."
79	Aristotle held rhetoric to be constructed of arguments and appeals involving premises shared by the speaker and audience. For example, with two part statement, the first part would be accepted by the audience without the need for proof because of common belief. The second part would be dependent on the first (or vice versa).
80	Three Rhetorical Settings: 1. Deliberative Oratory, 2. Epideictic Oratory, 3. Forensic Oratory
80	Regarding Deliberative Oratory, Herrick points out that Aristotle spent much more time on this than Forensic Oratory. He also seems to equate Political Oratory and Deliberative Oratory synonymously. Basically, Deliberative Oratory affected the entire polis, whereas Forensic only one person. Forensic was also more prone to talk about "non essentials"- the things that would lead an rhetor to say unscrupulous things to create belief that the client is innocent.
80	Deliberative oratory involves weighing evidence for and against a policy or course of action.
80	The guiding principle of deliberative oratory was eudaimonia [yoo-die-moan-NEE-uh] or the "well being" and happiness of the citizens of the polis
81	If you are trying to decide to buy a car, you are involved in deliberative reasoning. Deliberative reasoning is concerned with actions, if future oriented and deals with questions of the best uses of resources.
81	Epideictic Oratory was characteristic of public ceremonies such as funerals or events commemorating war heroes,. It dealt with issues of praise and blame.
81	Herrick points out that the Sophist like to use speeches of display (epideixis [epi-dex-sis]) at public events.
81	Epideictic oratory was important in Athens to maintain ethics and values like courage, honor and honesty. Any acknowledgement of someone doing good, honorable, courageous things is the use of epideictic. Or condemning a politicians dishonesty is also the use of epideictic.
82	Forensic Oratory arguing for someone's innocence or guilt versus political issues. Speaks of the past versus the future. The speaker must have a good sense of what the audience believes to be just. Looks for commonly held views between audience and speaker.
82-83	Artistic proofs. - Aristotle identified three artistic proofs that make up the techne of rhetoric: 1. logical reasoning (logos), 2. the names and causes of various human emotions (pathos) and 3. human character and goodness (ethos).
83	Herrick says that reading in silence was unknown to the Greeks or later Romans and that everyone read out loud. Wouldn't it be more appropriate to say "less common"?  Reading out loud may have been in vogue, but they certainly had the ability comprehend written words in silence if they chose. They probably read out loud for the edification of the large number of illiterate people.  However, if they walked into a building  that had a sign reading, "Quite Please", I doubt they had to say it out loud to grasp its meaning. (smile) His point is that - because of vocal reading, logos referred to the spoken word.	Link
83	LOGOS: Herrick says that Aristotle used logos to refer to proofs available in the worlds, arguments or logic of speech.
83	PATHOS: Aristotle referred to pathos as "putting the audience in the right frame of mind." I think he means stirring up feelings of justice and fairness, which will cause the jury to judge properly.
84	"The study of pathos, then, is the study of the psychology of emotion governed by a moral concern for discovering and acting on the truth."
84	Pathos is involved in appeals that deal with fear. Aristotle states three types of fear: contempt, spite and insolence.
84	Aristotle defines fear as "a pain or disturbance due to a mental picture of some destructive or painful evil in the future (1382).
84-85	ETHOS: The potential of a speaker's character to be used as a tool to persuade.
85	Aristotle breaks down character into three parts: 1. phronesis (intelligence, good sense) 2. arete (virtue) and 3. eunoia (good-will).
85	Aristotle wants to recover the ethos of rhetoricians lost due to immoral sophists.
85	Ethos is a careful study of what Athenians consider to be the qualities of a trustworthy individual.
85	Aristotle saw the art of rhetoric as combining a logical study (logos), a psychological study (pathos) and a sociological study (ethos). These provide a source of proof or "means of persuasion."
85	TOPOS: translated "topic" came to mean location for an argument, and then a line of argument or type of argument that could be used in making a case.
85	EIDEI TOPOI: [ee-dee toe-poy - I think] Special lines of arguments. In other words, the types of arguments you use for specific types of cases. One type for legislature anther for forensic.
86	KOINOI TOPOI: Aristotle's universal line of arguments that could be used in any of the three rhetorical settings. Aristotle discusses 8 of these.
86	Aristotle's topics: Universal and special.
87	Common Fallacies in argument. For example, ad hoc - just because one thing follows another does not imply that it was caused by the former. The cows circled the pond three times, and it started to rain.
87	Book III, Delivery, Style and Arrangement of speeches.
88	Aristotle advises for the use of a good metaphor and offers advice in their construction.
	Chapter Five: Rhetoric at Rome
93	In order to have any significant roll in Roman society, you had to be skilled at rhetoric and public speaking.
93	Cicero (106 - 43 BCE) and Quintilian (CE 35 - 100) both wrote extensively on rhetorical theory. Their principals were used in teaching up to the American Revolution (culminated in 1776)
94	For the Republic, the Senate was made up of about 300 people
	Rome moved from Republic to Empire when Julius Caesar crossed the Rubicon in 49 BCE. It was further solidified after Caesar's murder when Octavian came to power in 27 BCE
94	"Character was an extraordinarily important element in the social and political milieu of Republican Rome." - James May.
94	James May says the Romans of the Republic believed character remained fairly constant throughout life and it determines actions. This was Aristotle's Ethos.
94	Rome, during the Republic, was a patriarchy, and power belonged to those of a certain clan and powerful families. However, Cicero was not from a politically powerful family.
96	Another consequence of the primarily oral culture of the ancient Mediterranean world is that training the memory was considered much more important that it  in a culture based on written texts.
96	For students of the Roman Republic, instruction in all subjects was conducted in the Greek language, and instruction in rhetoric followed Greek rhetorical theories.
96	Of Cicero's writings, 800 letters from him, 100 to him and six books on rhetoric are extant.
97	Cicero wrote De Inventione, a technical book of Greek rhetoric for the Roman reader. It was very popular.
97	Cicero said "I have been led by reason itself to hold this opinion first and foremost, that wisdom without eloquence does too little for the good of states, but that eloquence without wisdom is generally highly disadvantageous and is never helpful.
97	Cicero argued that rhetoric is the civilizing force that makes human social life possible. By rhetoric, we overcome our tendency to rule the strong over the weak.
97	Cicero addressed the problems arising when persuasion is cut free from truth…
	The Five Canons of Rhetoric
	The five canons of oratory are contained in the De Inventione.
97	He admits that the five parts are not new to him.
97	The five canons are: Invention, Arrangement, Expression, Memory and Delivery.
98	INVENTION: The discovery of valid or seemingly valid arguments. Most of De Inventione is devoted to this.
98	ARRANGEMENT: (dispositio) or the distribution of arguments thus discovered in the proper order.
98	EXPRESSION: (elocutio) focused the would-be orator's attention on "the fitting of the proper language to the invented material." Persuasive phrases.	cf.p6
98	MEMORY: [memoria] is the firm mental grasp of matter and words" of speech.
98	DELIVERY: [pronuntiatio] is the control of voice and body in a manner suitable to the dignity of the subject matter and the style."
98	Orators studied movement, gesture, posture, facial expression, and vocal tone and volume.
98	The two approaches to finding persuasive arguments are the stasis and the topical systems. Stasis means "stopping point."
99	A rhetor divided his speech into  natural stopping points in the debate. "What occurred?" - "When did it happen?" Any point that would potentially be a clash.
99	Cicero writes, "the controversy about a definition arises when there is agreement as to the act and the question if by what word that which has been done is to be called." This reminds me of Bill Clinton, "I did not have sexual relations with that woman."
99	Herrick writes, "Fourth, issues of procedure or translative…" Did I miss something?  Where's first through third?
99	The stasis system closely resembled the Roman rhetorical training called the topical system.
99	Topical systems (aka loci systems): Began as memory devices and later evolved into methods for discovering arguments. The speaker might associate long memorized passages with areas of a public building to help remember the sequence. This also helped him walk through the stages of the argument.
100	In his later work, Cicero presents topica as ,less mechanical than offered in De Inventione.
100	Topica helped people come up with arguments by mimicking the was people thought.
100	One part of legal proceeding was to establish the good or bad reputation of the person.
100	Cicero writes, "We hold the following to be the attributes of the person: name, nature manner of life, fortune, habit, feelings, interests, purpose, achievements, accidents, speeches made."
101	Question about the alleged act were argued. 1. Motive, 2. Time and Place considerations, 3. Other events or topics that relate to the allegation, 4. What were the consequences of he act
101	Hermagoras of Temnos developed rhetorical theories that are no longer extant. See Herrick, p.101. "He classified judicial arguments according to what he called "issues." His three type, recorded in the later Roman rhetorical treatise, the Rhetorica ad Herennium are: (1) conjecture, (2) legal, and (3) juridical issues."
101	Conjecture = matter of fact - Did person A steal money from person B?
101	Legal = Interpretation of a legal document
101	Juridical = was the act right or wrong
101	Hermagoras' methods for analyzing arguments: thesis and hypothesis. Thesis was a general premise, like the major premise of a syllogism. The hypothesis was the conclusion drawn from interpreting the thesis.
102	Cicero published De Oratore in 55 BC, after his one-year banishment. It was a work on rhetoric and Plato's Gorgias.
102	Cicero is best known for "Eloquence and wisdom must be united in the true orator."
102	Cicero stressed that the orator must be educated in multiple fields.
102	Cicero also encouraged personal character
102	Cicero sais, "Feelings are won over by a man's dignity (dignitas), achievements (res gestae), and reputation (existimatio)."
103	Cicero accused Socrates (Plato) of separating wisdom and eloquence in the Gorgias.
103	Cicero sought to unite the tongue and the brain.
103	The audience is always of central concern for the orator
103	Cicero said emotion (pathos) was central to powerful rhetoric.
104	Cicero assigns 3 functions to oratory: To teach (docere), to delight (delectare), and to persuade (movere).
105	HUMOR IN ORATORY: Cicero promotes humor in rhetoric. Interesting contrast is Aristotle, who thought comedy was a waste of time. The proper object of comic imitation is, however, not ‘every sort of fault,’ but ‘the ridiculous, which is a species of the ugly (49a33-34).’
105	Cicero's comments on humor in oratory - be funny, don't over do it. "All is not witty that is laughable." Don't mimic mannerism of other people. Don't grimace. Don't use obscenities.
105	Humor: Equivocation witty but not hilarious. Juxtaposing words.
106	Taking a term literally when its meant figuratively or vice versa
107	QUINTILLIAN (35 - 100 CE): He gained the highest recognition in Rome as a teach of rhetoric.
107	This historian Tacitus and the statesman, Pliny the Younger were students of Quintillian.
	Quintilian's great work, the Institutio oratoria, in 12 books, was published shortly before the end of his life. He believed that the entire educational process, from infancy onward, was relevant to his major theme of training an orator. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9062299
	Quintilian was born in Spain and educated in Rome, where his became a leading rhetorical teacher under the emperors Titus and Domitian, retiring probably in 88. Pliny the Younger, and perhaps Tacitus were students.
107	Quintilian warned that even a child's nurse should speak proper Latin, the child's friends should be properly chosen.
107	Quintilian said that learning rhetoric cannot create a moral person, but it could enhance someone who was already moral.
107	He begins Institutio oratoria by saying, "My aim, then, is the education of the perfect orator.  The first essential for such a one is that he should be a good man, and consequently we demand of him not merely the possession of exceptional gifts of speech, but of all the excellences of character as well."
108	There was a strong influence of Cicero in Quintilian's school of rhetoric.
108	Indefinite and Definite Questions: Indefinite was general questions that did not address a specific person or event - like Is the Universe governed by gods or Should one enter politics? This was also the "thesis."
108	Definite questions include specifics like - Should John Marry Sue?
108	Quintilian broadened the scope by discussing factual (definite) and speculative (indefinite) issues.
108	Quintilian found three bases in forensic cases, which he termed 1. existence, 2. definition, and 3. quality. Did it happen? What happened? What was the severity?
109	Quintilian's 4 types of proof: 1. Things we perceive with senses. 2. General agreement among people. 3. The results of similar cases. 4. That both parties admit to the proof.
109	Loci: For Quintilian, this meant practicing different types of arguments on a variety of subjects so you would be able to recall them when needed.
109-110	Five parts of Judicial Speech (Quintilian): 1. Exordium - Convincing the audience to listen to what you have to say. 2. Narratio - Statement of facts to understand the case. 3. Confirmatio - proofs about the facts. 4. Confutation - Refutation of counter arguments 5. Peroratio - Conclusion - the closing argument.
110	LONGINUS: A famous rhetorical treatise that emphasized principles of good writing. The application of literary criticism. The emotional power of language. Author of the sublime.
111-112	Longinus advanced the power of language that Gorgias promoted. He used a concept called "the sublime" or "sublimity", "a measure of the impact that literature combining emotion combined with great ideas has on readers." I would reword that sentence.
112	Longinus concept of sublime was equivalent to "poetry as pure power."
112	Herrick writes that silent reading was "almost unknown" versus absolutely "unknown" on page 83
112	Longinus had 5 sources of great writing. (1). Vigor of mental conception, (2). Strong and inspired emotion, (3). the adequate fashioning of figure (both of speech and of thought), (4). Word choice, (5) Word arrangement The first two he couldn't teach you. You either had it or you didn't.
112	Longinus uses the emotion found in a poem by Sappho (c.625 - c.570) about love to illustrate his point on emotion in writing.
113	Regarding figures of speech, Longinus says "the best use of a figure is when the very fact that it is a figure goes unnoticed."
113	Longinus warns that a witty figure of speech may backfire, making the listener think they through pretty words you are trying to trick or trap him into agreeing. This will cause persuasion to fail.
113	Longinus discusses a technique called "asyndeton", leaving out connective words like "and". He quote Xenophon, "Shield on shield, they were pushing, fighting, killing, dying."
113	Longinus main point was to bring emotion to your writing, but do it with decorum, making sure it fits the subject.
114	Herrick says that Longinus invented literary criticism in the way he measured the effect of a writing or speech on its audience.
114	Rhetoric in the Later Roman Period
114	Beginning of the Second Sophistic Period (c. 50 CE - 100 CE). Herrick says that during this time, "some of the oratorical elements associated with original Greek Sophists were reintroduced in parts of the Roman Empire. Herrick says the Second Sophistic period runs to 100 CE, but he gives Aelius Aristides as an example of the period. Aelius Aristides (117 - 181 CE) was born after the period was supposedly to have ended. Wiki puts the Second Sophistic period from the reign of Nero (54CE) to the period of Roman distress 230 CE.
114	Dio Chrysostom (40 - 120 CE) aka Dio Cocceianus, aka Chrysostomos, aka "golden tongued". An itinerant Stoic philosopher and Roman historian who was renowned for his rhetorical abilities. Herrick uses him as an example of a rhetorician of the Second Sophistic period (50 - 100 CE).
114	Aelius Aristides (117 - 181 CE) one of the sophists of the second sophistic period.
115	Rhetoric began to decline when saying any little thing against the Emperor resulted in a capital criminal offense.
115	Rhetoricians of the 2nd period were often educator in Roman universities. The Greek sophists often continued to promote Hellenism.
115	No longer did citizen orators wield power in the Assembly
115	Rhetoric was reduced to training administrators and entertaining people.
122	Chapter 6: Rhetoric in Christian Europe
122	Constantine legalized Christianity for Romans in 313 CE.
122	Rhetoric declined as Rome declined and Christianity rose.
122	The church came to control every aspect of public and private life.
123	Aristotle's Rhetoric "was not known to the Latin West before Hermannus Alemannus translation it into Latin (from Arabic) in 1256 and William of Moerbeke again translated it (from Greek) in about 1270.
123	Many works were lost in the destruction of libraries, but Cicero's De Inventione and the anonymous Rhetorica ad Herennium was saved. These works are heavily quoted in the Middle ages.
123	The Church viewed rhetoric with suspicion because it was not produced by Christian authors.
123	Cicero's work benefitted from endorsement from Augustine.
124	Scholars view the middles ages as a period in which rhetoric was dismantled or fragmented.
124	In the Middle Ages, schools arose that studied Aristotle.
124	Scholasticism developed around the medieval tendency to treat ancient sources - the Bible and certain text of classical antiquity - as authoritative. So strong was the tendency that individual sentences from a respected source, even when taken of  context, could be employed to secure a point in debate. These isolated statements from ancient sources were called sententiae [sen-ten-sha].
	[sen-ten-sha] -- a aphorism or phrase. Herrick says this word described phrases that were recognized from ancient writings like the text of the Bible or Aristotle. These phrases could be mentioned in a debate to make a point, and the audience would not need long explanation.
124	Herrick says, "Education by debating general topics drawn from authoritative statements reveals one way in which rhetorical and dialectical practices made their way into the Middle Ages.
124	Because each phrase was taken as a whole, it was not debated in its context, and often the true meaning of the phrase was not retained.
126	Augustine and rhetoric of the 2nd Sophistic period rewarded delivery and ornamentation more than substance.
127	Augustine saw that he could use rhetoric to defend attacks against "spiritual truth."
127	Augustine's dilemma was that God was infinite and he needed to speak of God using finite symbols. Thus, in order to think of God, you must cleanse your mind. This is done rhetorically. A preacher would help you remove impurity from your thoughts and life so you could get closer to thinking of God. He used Plato's idea of true rhetoric, as shown in the Phaedrus.
127	Augustine's rhetoric taught that the preacher should know his material well (teach), be able to affect emotions (delight) and persuade Christian ideas of living (to move).
128	Guilty by association. Augustine was troubled that he was using a non-Christian, Roman system of rhetoric. He resolved this by deciding that it should only be used on Christians and not with unbelievers.
129	Augustine writes his theory of the relationship between words or signs in his work De Doctrina. He divides the world into two broad categories: things, and signs pointing to things. In other words, the actual word and the various meanings that the word represents- actually or allegorically.
129	Augustine taught how to use pagan writers and methods without paganizing Christianity.
130	Martianus Capella wrote "The History of Rhetoric." He was a pagan - not Christian. Herrick mentions that this work was responsible for creating the impression that the rhetorical tradition was incompatible with Christianity. (Herrick, p.130).
131	Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius (475 - 524 CE) was a Roman statesman and philosopher who wrote The Consolation of Philosophy.  He bridged Roman culture to Christian.
131	Boethius discussed what he termed topical maxims, where were rational principles or major premises in arguments.
131	Boethius said, "Where the material needed to produce an an object is absent, the object also is absent." For example, if the enemy does not have the ability to produce iron, they also do not have weapons of iron.
132	James J. Murphy sais, The
134	Public speaking transformed into the art of letter writing in the middle ages. Perhaps speeches were less common because you had to be very careful what you wrote or you would be censored permanently.
137	Wives of business owners in the middle ages were often the letter writers because it fell upon the women to manage the finances of the business.
138	In studying the letters, you cannot discern if the letters are written by men or women.
138	Richardson points out that if women had have written more in the middle ages, we would have a different view of the medieval world.
138	In letters, a woman's view became a man's voice for commerce reasons. While not completely fair, at least it rendered them rhetorically equal.
139	The poetry of the middle ages lacked the logic and deeper thinking of earlier poetry.
139	Geoffrey of Vinsauf admonishes his students to plan their poetry. Don't just start writing with planning it out. He also spoke about vivid metaphors.
142	James J. Murphy identified three medieval rhetorical arts: preaching, letter writing and poetry
147	Chapter 7: Rhetoric in the Renaissance
147	During the renaissance, the Christian world view was challenged, Gutenburg developed the printing press, Europe was split by wars and the Protestant referomation begins.
147	Rhetoric flourished during the Renaissance.
147	This chapter studies trends in rhetoric during the period 1350 - 1600 CE. It flourished as a method of instruction.
147	The Italian Humanist school found in rhetoric a means of both self-improvement and social development.
148	Rhetoric was primarily an Italian phenomenon, especially in letter writing and drafting legal and commercial documents.
148	The rhetoricians looked past the middle ages to the Roman and Greek period for inspiration. This classicism was consistent with the general tenor of Renaissance humanism.
148	George of Trebizond (1395 - 1472) published his Five books of Rhetoric.
149	Herrick mentions that George of Trebizond tried to reassemble rhetoric, as he felt it has been disassembled during the middle ages.
149	Herrick says, "Trebizond admired the ancient Greek Sophists…" LOL, he was from Trebizond. That was not his name. Although, Wiki does say he went by Trapezuntius because his ancestors were from Trebizond.
149	George of Trebizond spoke against Plato and for the Sophists.
149	Ciceros writings were available all over Europe, only 4 decades after Gutneburg.
150	Herricks mentions Wilson's work "The brain depends upon elegance to compensate for its own small size and short lifetime.
151	Lorenzo, or Lautentius, Valla (1407 - 1457) PUBLISHED Dialectical Disputations
151	Herrick mentions Valla is called "not only the most wide-ranging, but also perhaps the most influential of all humanist scholars." [Herrick, p.151]
151	Valla attacked scholasticism and "suggest a new approach to human understanding based on rhetoric.
152	The point of much of Valla's work is that rhetoric, not the dialectic and philosophy of the universities, is the proper basis for education.
153	Women were more likely to have access to education during the Renaissance that earlier periods in Western history. They studied rhetoric.
153	Women still could not rise about their born place in life, however those educated in rhetoric became vocal for women's education.
174	Chapter 8: Enlightment Rhetorics
174	The modern age started in the late 17th or early 18th century
174	Modernity definded a questioning the received truths of Christian tradition, elevating rationality over other sources of truth, such as authority, seeking solution to social problems by means of scientific method
174	Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712 - 1778) publishes "A Discourse on the Moral Effects of the Arts and Sciences".
	Rousseau argued that arts and sciences corrupt morality.
175	Ramus and Descartes in the 17th century  moved arguments and proof out of the domain of rhetoric and into the domains of logic, dialectic and mathematics. This resulted in a "managerial" emphasis in rhetorical studies.
	Less invention and more style
175	Giambattista Vico or Giovanni Battista Vico (June 23, 1668 – January 23, 1744)
176	Vico wrote passionately in response to the great philospher and mathematician Rene Descartes, who despised rhetoric and wished to relegate it to an obscure place in the academy.
176	Vico argued that Descartes mathematical truths were as reliant on symbols as were the oration of the rhetoricians.
176	Vico was a poet and held that "primitive men were necessarily poets because they possessed strong imaginations which compensated for the weakness of their reason.
177	Vico opposed the views of Descartes, who affirmed that the only certain knowledge was that which could not be doubted.
177	Decisions in public life, Vico noted, were not usually based on certainties, but rather on careful weighing of options guided by prudence, or practical judgment.
177	Vico placed importance on our innate capacity to grasp similarities or relationships. He called this ingenium.
	Will the real mr so in so please stand up
177	Vico said that using ingenium, "we surpass what lies before us in our sensory awareness."  The act of transcending perception, we become human. The language of metaphor and poetry "is the langauge that constitutes humanity."
177	Descartes, Vico thought, had ignored the vital rhetorical element in human thinking by focusing his attention solely on the method of demonstrable proof that moved by deduction from first principles to necessary conclusions.
178	Vico's theory of the development of thought has been called incomparably righter and more fully developed that those advanced by other scholars of his generation
178	Early poets, for instance, their thought richly imaginative, compared objects to people. They thus anthropomorphized nature by attribution to inanimate objects human qualities, such as emotion. The tendency to compare dissimilar things was, accounding to Vico, native to the human mind and a necessary imaginative precursor to more systematic or ration thought.
178	Vico wanted to teach the systems of Cicero and Quintilian related to rhetoric.
179	For Vico, the "sense-making" capacity that allowed human beings to create civilization out of disordered nature was exhibited in the imaginative fantasies of poets and storytellers rather than in the premises of philosophers or the deductions of logicians.
	Why does Vico think nature in disordered?
179	British Rhetorics in the 18th Century
181	Thomas Sheridan - The importance of effective public speaking
181	Thomas Sheridan - The importance of Delivery
182	The Scottish school -
186	George Campbell
198	Chapter 9: Contemporary Rhetoric I: Arguments, Audiences and Advocacy
199	Herrick says of 20th century science, "The theory that "won out" over competing theories in scientific debates was often the theory presented in the most persuasive manner, not the one supported by the greatest weight of evidence." I really disagree with the way this is presented. First, give some examples. If it happened so often, there must be many examples. If it happened a few times, its not a trend. If there are examples, did the system of peer review eventually resolve the hypothesis? You can't say this type of ludite mush without some follow up.
222	Chapter 10: Contemporary Rhetoric II: Rhetoric as Equipment for Living
223	Kenneth Burke quote, "You persuade a man only insofar as you can talk his language by speech, gesture, tonality, order, image, attitude, idea, identifying your ways with his."
223	Lloyd Bitzer calls Identification " the key term in Burke's theroy of rhetoric
223	Rhetoric may be the only solution to alienation or separation.
223	Kenneth Burke (1897 - 1993) published A Rhetoric of Motives. If men were not apart from one another, there would be no need for the rhetorician to proclaim their unity. If men were wholly and truly of one substance, absolute communcation would be of man's very essence."